Which country controlled indochina

In , the United States, both Vietnams, and several other nations agreed to respect the neutrality of and not interfere in the affairs of Laos, which borders Vietnam to the west. North Vietnam immediately broke the accord, however, moving troops and supplies through Laos rather than traversing the heavily guarded demilitarized zone that separated it from South Vietnam.

In response to these North Vietnamese transgressions, the Americans covertly rained down billions of pounds of bombs on Laos. The nine-year campaign was so intense that, on average, a planeload of explosives fell every eight minutes, making Laos, per capita, the most heavily bombed nation on earth.

Unexploded munitions from the Vietnam War-era continue to kill Laotians and Vietnamese and Cambodians to this day. Vang Pao at Long Cheng, where the U. Meanwhile, President Richard Nixon authorized a cross-border invasion of Laos in Yet, no matter what they tried, the Americans never succeeded in seriously disrupting North Vietnamese supply lines, nor did they prevent the fall of Laos to the communists in Cambodia, while officially neutral, tolerated communist intrusions—and was bombed by the United States for those intrusions.

Unsurprisingly, the North Vietnamese likewise moved troops and supplies through neighboring Cambodia, which, though officially neutral, tolerated the communist intrusions. The United States responded with a secret bombing campaign that Nixon drastically ramped up in Nixon then sent troops across the border in , taking advantage of a coup that ousted Sihanouk in favor of a pro-American general.

Though Vietnamese communists allied with the Khmer Rouge during the Vietnam War, they eventually deposed the regime in South Korea was the main U. Not wanting to be seen as going it alone, the Johnson administration pressured other countries to join in the Vietnam War, much as George W.

He explains that they were partially motivated by a sense of obligation and ideological sympathy: After all, they could not help but notice the historical parallels between themselves and South Vietnam. However, they were also being paid off by the United States in the form of economic and military assistance. Financial aid, along with a desire to curry favor with the United States, drew in additional countries as well.

So, too, did a legitimate fear of Communism, Moise says. In the end, almost 60, Australians served of whom died , about 40, Thais served of whom died , and over 3, New Zealanders served 37 of whom died.

The French adopted a policy of assimilation rather than association. This allowed the colonialists to rule through native rulers while upholding their traditional cultures and hierarchy, similar to British rule in Malaya. However, the French chose to adopt the policy of assimilation. French was the language of administration. The Napoleonic Code was introduced in in the five provinces, sweeping away the Confucianism that has existed for centuries in Indochina.

Unlike Algeria, French settlement in Indochina did not occur at a grand scale. By , only about 34, French civilians lived in French Indochina, along with a smaller number of French military personnel and government workers.

As French Indochina was the colony of financial exploitation, economic and social development in the region aimed to benefit the French and a small group of local wealthy elites, with limited investments to produce immediate returns rather than long-term benefits for the local populations. Minority groups such as the Muong, Tay, Chams, and Jarai were collectively known as Montagnards and resided principally in the mountain regions of Indochina.

Ethnic Han Chinese were largely concentrated in major cities, especially in Southern Vietnam and Cambodia where they became heavily involved in trade and commerce.

During French colonial rule, French was the principal language of education, government, trade, and media. It became widespread among urban and semi-urban populations and among the elite and educated. This was most notable in the colonies of Tonkin and Cochinchina, where French influence was particularly prominent, while Annam, Laos, and Cambodia were less influenced by French education.

Despite the dominance of French among the educated, local populations still largely spoke their native languages. The French did not plan to expand the Laotian economy and geographic isolation also led to Laos being less influenced from France compared to other French colonies. In a estimate, only French civilians along with a smaller number of government workers lived in Laos, a figure significantly smaller than in Vietnam and Cambodia.

The economic and social policies introduced under Governor-General Paul Doumer, who arrived in , determined the development of French Indochina. Vietnam became a source of raw materials and a market for tariff-protected goods produced by French industries.

Funding for the colonial government came from taxes on local populations and the French government established a near monopoly on the trade of opium, salt, and rice alcohol. Indochina was the second most invested-in French colony by after Algeria, with investments totaling up to 6.

The exploitation of natural resources for direct export was the chief purpose of all French investments, with rice, coal, rare minerals, and later also rubber as the main products. Doumer and his successors up to the eve of World War II were not interested in promoting industry, which was limited to the production of goods for immediate local consumption.

Among these enterprises—located chiefly in Saigon, Hanoi, and Haiphong the outport for Hanoi —were breweries, distilleries, small sugar refineries, rice and paper mills, and glass and cement factories. The greatest industrial establishment was a textile factory at Nam Dinh, which employed more than 5, workers.

The total number of workers employed by all industries and mines in Vietnam was some , in At the turn of the 20th century, the growing automobile industry in France resulted in the growth of the rubber industry in French Indochina and plantations were built throughout the colony, especially in Annam and Cochinchina.

France soon became a leading producer of rubber and Indochinese rubber became prized in the industrialized world. The success of rubber plantations in French Indochina resulted in an increase in investment in the colony by various firms. These new factories produced textiles, cigarettes, beer, and cement, which were then exported throughout the French Empire. Because the aim of all investments was not the systematic economic development of the colony but the attainment of immediate high returns for investors, only a small fraction of the profits was reinvested.

By , Saigon was the sixth busiest port in the entire French Empire. French settlers further added their influence on the colony by constructing buildings in the form of Beaux-Arts and added French-influenced landmarks such as the Hanoi Opera House and Saigon Notre-Dame Basilica.

Economically, the French did not develop Laos to the scale that it did Vietnam, and many Vietnamese were recruited to work in the government in Laos instead of the Laotian people, causing conflicts between local populations and the government.

Economic development occurred very slowly in Laos and was initially fueled primarily by rice cultivation and distilleries producing rice alcohol. Originally serving as a buffer territory for France between its more important Vietnamese colonies and Siam, Cambodia was not initially seen as an economically important area. Poor and sometimes unstable administration in the early years of French rule in Cambodia meant infrastructure and urbanization grew at a much slower rate than in Vietnam, and traditional social structures in villages remained in place.

However, as French rule strengthened after the Franco-Siamese War, development slowly began in Cambodia, where rice and pepper crops allowed the economy to grow. As the French automobile industry grew, rubber plantations like the ones in Cochinchina and Annam were built and run by French investors.

Economic diversification continued throughout the s, when corn and cotton crops were also grown. Despite economic expansion and investment, Cambodians still continued to pay high taxes and in , protests broke out demanding for tax cuts. Infrastructure and public works were developed to some extent under French rule, and roads and railroads were constructed in Cambodian territory.

Most notably, a railway connected Phnom Penh with Battambang on the Thai border. Industry was later developed but was primarily designed to process raw materials for local use or for export. As in nearby British Burma and British Malaya, foreigners dominated the work force of the economy due to French discrimination that kept Cambodians from holding important economic positions.

Many Vietnamese were recruited to work on rubber plantations and later immigrants played key roles in the colonial economy as fisherman and businessmen.

Chinese Cambodians continued to be largely involved in commerce but higher positions were given to the French. Whatever economic progress was made under the French, it benefited the French and the small class of the local wealthy created by the colonial regime. The masses were deprived of economic and social benefits. Through the construction of irrigation works, chiefly in the Mekong delta, the area of land devoted to rice cultivation quadrupled between and The new lands were not distributed among the landless and the peasants but were sold to the highest bidder or given away at nominal prices to Vietnamese collaborators and French speculators.

These policies created a new class of Vietnamese landlords and a class of landless tenants who worked the fields of the landlords for rents of up to 60 percent of the crop, which was sold by the landlords at the Saigon export market. The mounting export figures for rice resulted not only from the increase in cultivable land but also from the growing exploitation of the peasantry. The peasants who owned their land were rarely better off than the landless tenants.

Peasants continually lost their land to the large owners because they were unable to repay loans given them by the landlords and other money lenders at exorbitant interest rates. As a result, the large landowners of Cochinchina less than 3 percent of the total number of landowners owned 45 percent of the land, while the small peasants who accounted for about 70 percent of the owners owned only about 15 percent of the land.

The number of landless families in Vietnam before World War II was estimated at half of the population. The French had imposed high taxes to finance their ambitious program of public works and recruited forced labor with no protection against exploitation in the mines and rubber plantations, although the scandalous working conditions, the low salaries, and the lack of medical care were frequently attacked in the French Chamber of Deputies in Paris.

The mild social legislation decreed in the late s was never adequately enforced. Apologists for the colonial regime claimed that French rule led to vast improvements in medical care, education, transport, and communications.

The statistics kept by the French, however, appear to cast doubt on such assertions. In , for example, no more than 15 percent of all school-age children received any kind of schooling and about 80 percent of the population was illiterate, in contrast to precolonial times when the majority of the people possessed some degree of literacy.

With more than 20 million inhabitants in , Vietnam had one university with fewer than students. Medical care was well organized for the French in the cities, but in there were only two physicians for every , Vietnamese. The first wave of resistance to French rule emerged in Indochina shortly after France colonized the region, with particularly active nationalist movements in Vietnam, more limited and mostly elite-based opposition in Cambodia, and fragmented, often ethnically-divided rebellions in Laos.

Nationalist sentiments emerged in French Indochina shortly after the colonial rule was established. By the mids, French troops established a firm grip over the northern region of Vietnam and in , Phan Dinh Phung, a prominent imperial court official, led a rebellion against the colonizing power. The Can Vuong movement, which sought to expel the French and install the boy Emperor Ham Nghi at the head of an independent Vietnam, initiated the revolt in when Ton That Thuyet, another court official, launched a surprise attack against the colonial forces after a diplomatic confrontation with the French.

Thuyet took Ham Nghi northwards to the Tan So mountain base near the border with Laos after the attack failed. The Can Vuong movement lacked a coherent national structure and consisted mainly of regional leaders who attacked French troops in their own provinces. It initially prospered but failed after the French recovered from the surprise of the insurgency and poured troops into Annam from bases in Tonkin and Cochinchina. The insurrection in Annam spread and flourished in , reached its climax the following year, and gradually faded out by The Can Vuong movement was the first resistance movement that saw all of Vietnamese society, royalty, scholar-gentry, and peasantry, working together against the French.

However, although there were some 50 resistance groups, they lacked collaboration and unifying military authority. Actions taken by the resistance were never national, but the narratives of their struggle against foreign domination were passed down to the next generations.

At the beginning of the 20th century, two parallel movements emerged. Due to French diplomatic pressure, Japan later deported Chau. It stressed education for the masses, modernizing the country, fostering understanding and tolerance between the French and the Vietnamese, and peaceful transitions of power. The French suppressed both movements and Vietnamese revolutionaries began to turn to more radical paths, particularly after witnessing revolutionaries in action in China and Russia. In , French agents captured him in Shanghai and spirited him to Vietnam.

Due to his popularity, Chau was spared from execution and placed under house arrest until his death in The party launched the armed Yen Bai mutiny in in Tonkin, which resulted in its chairman Nguyen Thai Hoc and many other leaders captured and executed by the guillotine.

The movement was largely unsuccessful as the governor-general of French Indochina prevented full colonization due to possible conflicts with Cambodians and the monarch became a mere figurehead.

In , Si Votha, half brother of king Norodom and contender for the throne, led a rebellion to dispose of the French-backed Norodom after coming back from exile in Siam.

Gathering support from opponents of Norodom and the French, Si Votha led a rebellion that was primarily concentrated in the jungles of Cambodia and the city of Kampot. French forces later aided Norodom to defeat Si Votha under agreements that the Cambodian population be disarmed and acknowledge the resident-general as the highest power in the protectorate.

King Norodom, the monarch who initiated overtures to France to make Cambodia its protectorate in to escape Siamese pressure. Norodom was viewed as responsible for the constant Cambodian revolts against French rule. Unlike in Vietnam, Cambodian nationalism remained relatively quiet during much of French rule. The population had limited access to education, which kept literacy rates low and prevented nationalist movements like those in Vietnam from widely circulating their message.

Cambodian students resented the favored status of the minority Vietnamese. Minor independence movements, especially the Khmer Issarak, began to develop in among Cambodians in Thailand who feared their actions would have led to punishment if they operated in their homeland. In the late s, the French struggled to control its colonies in Indochina - Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. Despite financial assistance from the United States, nationalist uprisings against French colonial rule began to take their toll.

After the fall of Dien Bien Phu, the French pulled out of the region. Concerned about regional instability, the United States became increasingly committed to countering communist nationalists in Indochina. The United States would not pull out of Vietnam for another twenty years. Southeast Asia, with Indochina at the center, had long been a region of interest to outside powers. Most of the region fell under European colonial control after the midth century.

During World War Two, Japan also sought the resources the area had to offer. After Japanese defeat, many of the countries of Southeast Asia occupied by Japan protested their return to colonial status, resulting in a surge of nationalism. American officials involved in the U. Like the other colonial powers, France attempted to reestablish its position in Indochina after , but found that it was difficult. Laos gained its independence in , and Cambodia became independent in