How does manufacture eventually help agriculture

A timeline showing how human transportation systems have evolved, from primitive, slow, and inefficient vehicles, to modern, faster, and more efficient options. Corresponding advances in agricultural biotechnology are shown below, similarly illustrating how advances changed our ability to develop new agricultural crops. Wieczorek and Mark G. All rights reserved. Mutations Figure 2 are changes in the genetic makeup of a plant. Mutations occur naturally and sometimes result in the development of new beneficial traits.

In , plant breeders learned that they could make mutations happen faster with a process called mutagenesis. Radiation or chemicals are used to change the plant's DNA, the basic molecular system of all organisms' genetic material. The goal is to cause changes in the sequence of the base pairs of DNA, which provide biochemical instructions for the development of plants.

Resultant plants may possess new and desirable characteristics through this modification of their genetic material. During this process, plant breeders must grow and evaluate each plant from each seed produced. Figure 2: The effects of genetic mutations in carrots.

Induced mutation breeding was widely used in the United States during the 's, but today few varieties are produced using this technique. As our understanding of genetics developed, so new technologies for plant variety development arose.

Examples of these that are used today include genetic marker assisted breeding, where molecular markers associated with specific traits could be used to direct breeding programs, and genetic engineering. Some of the significant steps leading to the current state of the art are explained below.

Many different tools are available for increasing and improving agricultural production. These tools include methods to develop new varieties such as classical breeding and biotechnology. Traditional agricultural approaches are experiencing some resurgence today, with renewed interest in organic agriculture; an approach that does not embrace the use of genetically engineered crops.

The role that genetic engineering stands to play in sustainable agricultural development is an interesting topic for the future. American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Annual meeting Land Grant Universities Can GM crops harm the environment? McLintock, B. The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize. Pray, L. Nature Education Knowledge 1 , Thorpe, T. History of plant tissue culture. Molecular Biotechnology 37 , — Watson, J. Recombinant DNA , 2nd ed. New York, NY: W. Freeman, Soil: The Foundation of Agriculture. Sustainable Agriculture. What Are Soils?

Food Safety and Food Security. Introduction to the Sorption of Chemical Constituents in Soils. Pests and Pollinators. Soil erosion controls on biogeochemical cycling of carbon and nitrogen.

The Influence of Soils on Human Health. Use and Impact of Bt Maize. Aquaculture: Challenges and Promise. Soil Carbon Storage. Soil Minerals and Plant Nutrition. Soil Water Dynamics. The Conservation of Cultivated Plants. The Soil Biota. Transgenic Animals in Agriculture. Citation: Wieczorek, A. Nature Education Knowledge 3 10 Aa Aa Aa. Selective Cross Breeding. In traditional plant breeding, new varieties are developed either by selecting plants with desirable characteristics or by combining qualities from two closely related plants through selective breeding.

These features may for example be resistance to a particular pest or disease, or tolerance to climatic conditions. Pollen with the genes for a desired trait is transferred from plants of one crop variety to the flowers of another variety with other desirable traits.

Eventually, through careful selection of offspring, the desired trait will appear in a new variety of plants. Traditional plant breeding has produced numerous highly successful new varieties of crops over the centuries. There have also been many less than successful crosses made. In traditional breeding, crosses are often made in a relatively uncontrolled manner. The breeder chooses the parents to cross, but at the genetic level, the results are unpredictable. DNA from the parents recombines randomly, and desirable traits such as pest resistance may be bundled with undesirable traits, such as lower yield or poor quality.

The parent plants must be closely related to produce offspring. Traditional breeding programs are time-consuming, often taking decades to produce new viable crop varieties, and labor-intensive. A great deal of effort is required to separate undesirable from desirable traits, and this is not always economically practical. Many potential benefits are lost along the way, as plants that fail to demonstrate the introduced characteristics are discarded.

Traditional plant breeding takes on average years to produce a new crop variety. Classical Breeding with Induced Mutation. Genetic Engineering of Organisms. The basic structure of DNA is identical in all living things. In all organisms, different characteristics are determined by the sequence of the DNA base pairs. Biotechnology has developed to the point where researchers can take one or more specific genes from nearly any organism, including plants, animals, bacteria, or viruses, and introduce those genes into the genome of another organism.

This is called recombinant DNA technology Watson et al. In , the first commercial product arising from the use of recombinant DNA technology gene transfer was synthetic insulin. Pig and cattle pancreatic glands were previously the only way of producing insulin for human use. In , chymosin known as Rennin was the first enzyme produced from a genetically modified source-yeast-to be approved for use in food.

Stewardship of human resources includes consideration of social responsibilities such as working and living conditions of laborers, the needs of rural communities, and consumer health and safety both in the present and the future. Stewardship of land and natural resources involves maintaining or enhancing the quality of these resources and using them in ways that allow them to be regenerated for the future. Stewardship considerations must also address concerns about animal welfare in farm enterprises that include livestock.

An agroecosystems and food systems perspective is essential to understanding sustainability. Agroecosystems are envisioned in the broadest sense, from individual fields to farms to ecozones.

Food systems , which include agroecosystems plus distribution and food consumption components, similarly span from farmer to local community to global population. An emphasis on a systems perspective allows for a comprehensive view of our agricultural production and distribution enterprises, and how they affect human communities and the natural environment. Conversely, a systems approach also gives us the tools to assess the impact of human society and its institutions on farming and its environmental sustainability.

Studies of different types of natural and human systems have taught us that systems that survive over time usually do so because they are highly resilient, adaptive, and have high diversity.

Resilience is critical because most agroecosystems face conditions including climate, pest populations, political contexts, and others that are often highly unpredictable and rarely stable in the long run.

Adaptability is a key component of resilience, as it may not always be possible or desirable for an agroecosystem to regain the precise form and function it had before a disturbance, but it may be able to adjust itself and take a new form in the face of changing conditions. Diversity often aids in conferring adaptability, because the more variety that exists within a food system, whether in terms of types of crops or cultural knowledge, the more tools and avenues a system will have to adapt to change.

An agroecosystem and food system approach also implies multi-pronged efforts in research, education, and action. Not only researchers from various disciplines, but also farmers, laborers, retailers, consumers, policymakers and others who have a stake in our agricultural and food systems have crucial roles to play in moving toward greater agricultural sustainability.

Finally, sustainable agriculture is not a single, well-defined end goal. Scientific understanding about what constitutes sustainability in environmental, social, and economic terms is continuously evolving and is influenced by contemporary issues, perspectives, and values.

For example, agriculture's ability to adapt to climate change was not considered a critical issue 20 years ago, but is now receiving increasing attention. In addition, the details of what constitutes a sustainable system may change from one set of conditions e. When the production of food and fiber degrades the natural resource base, the ability of future generations to produce and flourish decreases.

The decline of ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean region, Pre-Columbian southwest U. A sustainable agriculture approach seeks to utilize natural resources in such a way that they can regenerate their productive capacity, and also minimize harmful impacts on ecosystems beyond a field's edge. One way that farmers try to reach these goals is by considering how to capitalize on existing natural processes, or how to design their farming systems to incorporate crucial functions of natural ecosystems.

By designing biologically-integrated agroecosystems that rely more on the internal cycling of nutrients and energy, it is often possible to maintain an economically viable production system with fewer potentially toxic interventions. For example, farmers aiming for a higher level of environmental sustainability might consider how they can reduce their use of toxic pesticides by bringing natural processes to bear on limiting pest populations. This might happen, for example, by planting hedgerows along field edges, or ground covers between rows, thereby providing habitat for insects and birds that prey on the pests, or by planting more diverse blends of crops that confuse or deflect pests Figure 2.

Maintaining a high degree of genetic diversity by conserving as many crop varieties and animal breeds as possible will also provide more genetic resources for breeding resistance to diseases and pests. Figure 2 A clover and grass cover crop adds biodiversity to an almond orchard, which aids in nutrient cycling and provides habitat for beneficial insects, while also building soil organic matter.

Conservation of resources critical for agricultural productivity also means taking care of soil so that it maintains its integrity as a complex and highly structured entity composed of mineral particles, organic matter, air, water, and living organisms.

Farmers interested in long-term sustainability often prioritize caring for the soil, because they recognize that a healthy soil promotes healthy crops and livestock. Maintaining soil functioning often means a focus on maintaining or even increasing soil organic matter. Soil organic matter functions as a crucial source and sink for nutrients, as a substrate for microbial activity, and as a buffer against fluctuations in acidity, water content, contaminants, etc. Furthermore, the buildup of soil organic matter can help mitigate the increase of atmospheric CO 2 and therefore climate change.

Another important function of soil organic matter is inducing a better soil structure, which leads to improved water penetration, less runoff, better drainage, and increased stability, thereby reducing wind and water erosion. Due to a high reliance on chemical fertilizers, agroecosystem functioning has been disconnected from the internal cycling of key plant nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.

Phosphate minerals for fertilizer are currently mined, but global reserves are predicted to sustain food production for only another 50 to years. Consequently, phosphate prices are anticipated to rise unless new reserves are discovered and innovations in recovery of phosphates from waste are developed.

The recycling of nitrogen and phosphorus at the farm and regional scale , improving efficiencies of fertilizer applications, and relying on organic nutrient sources animal and green manures are important elements of sustainable agriculture Figure 3. Recycling of nutrients is facilitated by a diversified agriculture in which livestock and crop production are more spatially integrated. For these reasons, extensive mixed crop-livestock systems, particularly in developing countries, could significantly contribute to future agricultural sustainability and global food security.

The practice has been shown to reduce soil erosion, increase yield, increase biotic activity, improve soil structure, and enhance soil organic matter accumulation. Overdraft of surface waters results in disturbance of key riparian zones, while overdraft of groundwater supplies threatens future irrigation capacity. Salinization, nutrient overloads, and pesticide contamination are widespread water quality issues. Selection and breeding of more drought- and salt-tolerant crop species and hardier animal breeds, use of reduced-volume irrigation systems, and management of soils and crops to reduce water loss are all ways to use water more efficiently within sustainable agroecosystems.

Modern agriculture is heavily dependent on non-renewable energy sources, especially petroleum. The continued use of these non-renewable sources cannot be sustained indefinitely, yet to abruptly abandon our reliance on them would be economically catastrophic. In sustainable agriculture, the goal is to reduce the input of external energy and to substitute non-renewable energy sources with renewable sources e.

Feenstra, G. What is Sustainable Agriculture? Altieri, M. Agroecology: The Science of Sustainable Agriculture. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, Gliessman, S. Agroecology: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agriculture. Hinrichs, C. Soil: The Foundation of Agriculture. Sustainable Agriculture. What Are Soils? Food Safety and Food Security. Introduction to the Sorption of Chemical Constituents in Soils. Pests and Pollinators. Soil erosion controls on biogeochemical cycling of carbon and nitrogen.

The Influence of Soils on Human Health. Use and Impact of Bt Maize. Aquaculture: Challenges and Promise. Soil Carbon Storage. Soil Minerals and Plant Nutrition. Soil Water Dynamics. The Conservation of Cultivated Plants. The Soil Biota. Transgenic Animals in Agriculture. Citation: Brodt, S. Nature Education Knowledge 3 10 Aa Aa Aa.